Breast Cancer by 
Betrayed by Nature by
Seven million people die from cancer each year around the world, and many more are impacted by this universal scourge. In Betrayed by Nature, research scientist and lecturer Robin Hesketh demystifies the nature of cancer. Hesketh provides a concise and comprehensive history of both the science and the medical advances made over the decades. He takes the reader on a riveting tour of human biology; he explains how cancers start, what is meant by 'a mutation', and how mutations can make cells grow abnormally and spread around our bodies. Drawing on the latest discoveries from the Human Genome Project, Hesketh reveals the strides being made in understanding this malevolent disease and makes accessible the science of today's treatments. Betrayed by Nature looks forward to the day when many cancers can be treated readily and effectively. With cancer afflicting one in three people worldwide, this is an illuminating and optimistic look at the past, present, and future of cancer.
Quest for the Cure by
This original fourteen chapter book is a brief, slightly autobiographic tale of medical oncologists, surgeons, radiation oncologists, and breast cancer patients in a well-established cancer center in Texas, who pursued the goal of cure for breast cancer. The evolution of improved outcomes in the treatment of microscopic metastatic breast cancer is also the story of the development of adjuvant chemotherapy for post-operative breast disease. The adjuvant therapy of breast cancer came about with the realization that this malignancy, when diagnosed in most patients, had spread beyond the confines of the primary cancer. Patient histories in the form of Case Studies are used to illustrate certain issues. Devoted to the development of the chemotherapeutic regimens that currently are used to treat patients with advanced breast cancer.
Lung Cancer by
Each volume in this timely series provides essential information on a disease or disorder (including symptoms, causes, treatments and cures); presents the controversies surrounding causes, alternative treatments, and other issues; and offers first-person narratives from people coping with the disease -- either as patients, family members or caregivers. Essays are carefully edited and introduced to make them easily accessible to student researchers as well as general readers.
The Biological Basis of Nursing: Cancer by
In 2000 the Department of Health issued a number of initiatives, with improving cancer treatment and research, and providing greater resources for cancer care being made a priority. Nurses and their colleague will be at the forefront of these changes. The book presents specialised biological information on what cancer is, how it damages the body, and how cancer treatments work. Engaging, accessible and illustrated throughout, this unique text: -explains the basic biology of cancer -discusses the biology of wide range of common cancers -identifies and explains the biological causes of cancer -explains drug action in chemotherapy and analgesia -explains the link between diet and cancer, and how diet is important in cancer therapy -discusses the biological basis of a range of nursing skills linked to cancer. This book will provide nurses with the essential knowledge required for working with cancer patient and their families, and will enable them to work with current and new forms of cancer treatment. It will also be of great use to clinical staff and nurse educators.
The Nucleolus by
As the first comprehensive overview of the nucleolus since 1985, The Nucleolus covers our current understanding of the cell nucleolus, including its role in ribosome assembly and its additional newly-discovered activities. The eighteen chapters have been written by experts who are actively engaged in research on the nucleolus and have an in depth review of the following topics: - nucleolar ultrastructure and dynamics, - behavior during mitosis, - ribosomal DNA gene and chromatin structure, - pre-ribosomal RNA transcription, - processing and modification, - ribosome assembly, - small nucleolar RNAs, - proteomics and non-traditional functions of the nucleolus. Separate chapters are also provided for yeast and higher eukaryotes on many topics. The Nucleolus will appeal not only to scientists directly engaged in nucleolar research, but also those working in related areas such as gene expression, protein biosynthesis, ribosome structure, transcription, chromatin structure, molecular genetics and the structure and functions of the cell nucleus in general.
Cell Proliferation and Apoptosis by
The 'Advanced Methods' series is intended for advanced undergraduates, postgraduates and established research scientists. Titles in the series are designed to cover current important areas of research in life sciences, and include both theoretical background and detailed protocols. The aim is to give researchers sufficient theory, supported by references, to take the given protocols and adapt them to their particular experimental systems. This book provides a detailed practical guide to cell proliferation and apoptosis detection methods. A novel approach combining both these areas allows important comparisons to be made. Topics covered include all aspects of tissue handling from collection, storage, fixation and processing through to locating and quantifying cells in different stages of the cell cycle. Cell Proliferation and Apoptosis is an essential and comprehensive practical guide to these important and expanding areas.
Cell Division and Growth (24:05)The cell cycle is a series of developmental and growth events that chart the normal life of a cell. This program uses easy-to-follow animation to illustrate the growth phases of the cell cycle and the processes of mitosis and cytokinesis that follow. The distinct phases of mitosis—including prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase—are described in detail. The program also explains meiosis, a variation of mitosis involving the formation of gametes in two stages. Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is also covered, including the effects of uncontrolled cell division (cancer). A part of the series Cell Biology: Structure, Function, and Processes. (22 minutes)
Cell division is needed for growth, reproduction and to replace dead cells. Mitosis : a type of cell division that leaves two identical copies of a cell. The chromosome number is unchanged.
Most cells divide by mitosis eg skin, blood, kidney. Nerve and brain cells rarely divide after childhood, so nerve and brain damage is usually permanent. Research
Cell cycle
Interphase (where the cell grows and DNA replicates) is followed by Mitosis (where the cell divides into two).
Stages of Mitosis
Prophase : the spindle (made of microtubules) forms. The chromosomes are visible scattered at random.
Metaphase : chromosomes line up in the center of the cell.
Anaphase : centromeres divide.The chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell ( V shape).
Telophase : two nuclei form. The cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis ). In plants, the cytoplasm separates from the center of the cell towards the outside by forming a cell plate. In animals, the cell membrane pushes inwards from the outer edge making a cleavage furrow, so the center is the last part that divides.
Control of cell division.
Normal cells only divide if : a) the correct growth factor is present.
b) each cell is not completely surrounded by other cells.
Proteins inside the cell control the cell cycle. Cyclins in the nucleus control the replication of DNA. The 2001 Nobel Prize was awarded to the people who discovered cyclins.
Protein kinases switch on proto-onco genes that start mitosis. A mutation in a proto-onco gene can turn it into an oncogene that causes cancer ( uncontrolled cell division).
Tumor-suppressor genes prevent mitosis, and even make abnormal cells kill themselves. Everyone has some of these tumor-suppressor genes (for example gene p53 ). Most cancers have mutations in these tumor-suppressor genes. As you get older the chance of mutations increases, so cancer is much more common in older people. Protective genes
Cancer cells keep on dividing, even if surrounded by other cells. A benign tumor is limited to one site and cannot spread. In a malignant tumor cancer cells have spread around the body in the blood. Metastasis means that the cancer has spread.
1) Environment :
2) Genetics : some cancers have a high genetic risk.
High risk : Prostate, Colon, Breast, Skin, Ovary.
Low risk : Lung, Pancreas, Testicles, Uterus.
1) Surgery : removes cancer cells. This is best for benign tumors.
2) Chemotherapy : chemicals that kill dividing cells. Standard for malignant tumors. Problem: current chemotherapy causes many side effects, because the chemicals kill all cells that happen to be dividing: cancer cells and regular cells like skin, blood and hair cells. So your hair falls out, you feel nausea etc. In 2001 a new type of chemotherapy was approved, that targets only cancer cells: Cancer pill
3) Radiation : kills all the cells in one spot. Standard for malignant tumors.
Problem: the radiation kills all cells in the area, whether they are cancerous or not, so causes side effects. Also radiation can itself cause new cancer to start.
| Type of Cancer | Annual deaths | 5 year survival | Early detection | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Prostate | 39,000 | 93 % | Exam: age 40+ Blood: age 50+ |
|
| Breast | 44,000 | 85% | Self exam : 20+ Mammogram : 40+ |
|
| Colon | 57,000 | 62% | Exam : 40+ Blood : 50+ |
|
| Lung | 160,000 | 14% | No test yet |
Most research is done using human cells grown in the lab called HeLa cells. These cells came from Henrietta Lacks. Cancer cells have telomerase : an enzyme that repairs the telomeres on the ends of the chromosomes.
Cancer researchers are developing:
a) inhibitors against telomerase.
b) inhibitors that stop cancer cells from producing new blood vessels.
c) medications that boost the immune system. Cancer drug
Asexual reproduction - offspring are identical (clones)
- only 1 parent ; cells divide by mitosis.
- examples : bacteria, banana.
Sexual reproduction - offspring vary.
- 2 parents ; sex cells have one set of chromosomes, compared to two sets in a normal cell.
- gametes (sex cells) are produced by meiosis.
Diploid cells - have two sets of chromosomes ( 2n ).
- examples skin, stomach, liver. These regular body cells are also called somatic cells.
- in humans, diploid cells have 46 chromosomes.
Haploid cells - have one set of chromosomes ( n ).
- examples sperm and egg (called the gametes or sex cells).
- in humans, haploid cells have 23 chromosomes.
Animation (Click on Mitosis vs Meiosis).
Mitosis Meiosis One cell division Two cell divisions One cell produces 2 cells One cell produces 4 cells No pairing Chromosomes pair up in Prophase I No crossing over Crossing over occurs Chromosome number unchanged Chromsome number halved in Anaphase I Produces diploid cells Produces haploid cells eg skin, blood, heart etc eg sperm or egg
A) Independent assortment
Picking 23 chromosomes from 46 in humans.
In a species with 3 chromosomes in gametes it gives 8 genetic combinations.
This gives roughly 8 million combinations in humans.
B) Crossing over
Changes the combinations of genes that are inherited. May give thousands of different combinations (exact number is unknown).
C) Random fertilization
The sperm that fertilizes the egg is chosen at random.
In a species with 3 genetically different gametes it gives 9 combinations.
In humans (over 8 million different gametes) it gives at least 70 trillion (70,000,000,000,000) combinations. World population
Last edited August 2014, by David Byres, David.Byres@fscj.edu
