Galapágos Creatures--some of the unusual animals that Darwin saw on the Galapágos islands.
Video clip from "Evolution:Constant Change and Common Threads". (Howard HugMedical Institute, 2005)
(length = 24 secs.)
Ancestors in Our Genome by
In 2001, scientists were finally able to determine the full human genome sequence, and with the discovery began a genomic voyage back in time. Since then, we have sequenced the full genomes of a number of mankind's primate relatives at a remarkable rate. The genomes of the common chimpanzee(2005) and bonobo (2012), orangutan (2011), gorilla (2012), and macaque monkey (2007) have already been identified, and the determination of other primate genomes is well underway. Researchers are beginning to unravel our full genomic history, comparing it with closely related species to answerage-old questions about how and when we evolved. For the first time, we are finding our own ancestors in our genome and are thereby gleaning new information about our evolutionary past.In Ancestors in Our Genome, molecular anthropologist Eugene E. Harris presents us with a complete and up-to-date account of the evolution of the human genome and our species. Written from the perspective of population genetics, and in simple terms, the book traces human origins back to their sourceamong our earliest human ancestors, and explains many of the most intriguing questions that genome scientists are currently working to answer. For example, what does the high level of discordance among the gene trees of humans and the African great apes tell us about our respective separations fromour common ancestor? Was our separation from the apes fast or slow, and when and why did it occur? Where, when, and how did our modern species evolve? How do we search across genomes to find the genomic underpinnings of our large and complex brains and language abilities? How can we find the genomicbases for life at high altitudes, for lactose tolerance, resistance to disease, and for our different skin pigmentations? How and when did we interbreed with Neandertals and the recently discovered ancient Denisovans of Asia? Harris draws upon extensive experience researching primate evolution inorder to deliver a lively and thorough history of human evolution. Ancestors in Our Genome is the most complete discussion of our current understanding of the human genome available.
Darwin's Backyard by
James T. Costa takes readers on a journey from Darwin's childhood through his voyage on the HMS Beagle where his ideas on evolution began. We then follow Darwin to Down House, his bustling home of forty years, where he kept porcupine quills at his desk to dissect barnacles, maintained a flock of sixteen pigeon breeds in the dovecote, and cultivated climbing plants in the study, and to Bournemouth, where on one memorable family vacation he fed carnivorous plants in the soup dishes.Using his garden and greenhouse, the surrounding meadows and woodlands, and even taking over the cellar, study, and hallways of his home-turned-field-station, Darwin tested ideas of his landmark theory of evolution with an astonishing array of hands-on experiments that could be done on the fly, without specialized equipment.He engaged naturalists, friends, neighbors, family servants, and even his children, nieces, nephews, and cousins as assistants in these experiments, which involved everything from chasing bees and tempting fish to eat seeds to serenading earthworms. From the experiments' results, he plumbed the laws of nature and evidence for the revolutionary arguments of On the Origin of Species and his other watershed works.Beyond Darwin at work, we accompany him against the backdrop of his enduring marriage, chronic illness, grief at the loss of three children, and joy in scientific revelation. This unique glimpse of Darwin's life introduces us to an enthusiastic correspondent, crowd-sourcer, family man, and, most of all, an incorrigible observer and experimenter.Includes directions for eighteen hands-on experiments, for home, school, yard, or garden.
Darwin's Beagle Diary
audio recording of excerpts from
Darwin's popular account of his
voyage of exploration. This link
takes you to an external website.
To return here, you must click
the "back" button on your
browser program.
(length = 68 mins, 19 secs)
Why Evolution Works (and Creationism Fails) by
Why Evolution Works (and Creationism Fails) is an impassioned argument in favor of science--primarily the theory of evolution--and against creationism. Why impassioned? Should not scientists be dispassionate in their work? "Perhaps," write the authors, "but it is impossible to remain neutral when our most successful scientific theories are under attack, for religious and other reasons, by laypeople and even some scientists who willfully distort scientific findings and use them for their own purposes." Focusing on what other books omit, how science works and how pseudoscience works, Matt Young and Paul K. Strode demonstrate the futility of "scientific" creationism. They debunk the notion of intelligent design and other arguments that show evolution could not have produced life in its present form. Concluding with a frank discussion of science and religion, Why Evolution Works (and Creationism Fails) argues that science by no means excludes religion, though it ought tocast doubt on certain religious claims that are contrary to known scientific fact.
The Cell by
Understanding the cell is the key to grasping the significant potential and technological developments of the new biology. Presented from the point of view of the cell's motivations, The Cell presents the origins and mechanisms of this element of life and the development of scientific knowledge surrounding it.
All populations slowly change over time. Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace explained the theory of evolution in 1859:
1) All organisms produce many offspring, that are all different.
2) Most of the offspring die young before they can reproduce.
3) The few that survive have genes that adapt them to the local environment, so nature selects the best genes.
4) Over time the population slowly becomes better adapted.
This process is called: natural selection (nature "selects" the best in each generation). Later the term "survival of the fittest" was used.
This was invented in 1753 by Linnaeus. The example below is the classification of the leopard:
Domain Eukarya
Kingdom Animal
Phylum ( Phyla ) Chordates
Class Mammals
Order Carnivores
Family Cats
Genus ( Genera ) Panthera
Species pardus
The scientific name is the Genus name followed by the species name, for example Panthera pardus.
Members of the same species can breed and produce fertile offpsring, so two leopards can produce cubs. Members of different species cannot breed (like leopards and lions).
Last edited August 2014, by David Byres, David.Byres@fscj.edu
Linnaeus ( 1760s ) : biologist. He invented the modern system of biological classification.
Hutton ( 1795 ) geologist. He proposed that slow, gradual changes altered the landscape eg rivers eroding mountains. Later Darwin applied this idea of slow, gradual change to living species.
Malthus ( 1800 ) minister. Malthus said that the human population will grow until limited by disease, starvation.
Lamarck ( 1810 ) biologist. He said that evolution was caused by passing on characteristics acquired during life. For example people who work out a lot will have babies born with large muscles!
Lyell ( 1830 ) geologist. He calculated that the earth was millions of years old, at least, rather than the 6,000 years that creationists believed.
The theory of evolution was jointly developed by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace. Some of Alfred Wallace's specimens were recently discovered. Video
1) All species can rapidly increase in population, if all their young survive.
2) Most wild populations are stable over time.
3) The reason popultions do not normally increase is that resources ( food, water, nesting sites ) are limited, so there is a struggle for survival.
4) Individuals in a population vary.
5) Most of this variation is inherited.
Conclusion : Individuals who are the best adapted will survive and reproduce, ones who are less adapted will die. Darwin and Wallace called this process "Natural selection". Later the term "survival of the fittest" was used.
1) Fossils show how species have changed over time:
A) The oldest fossils show no modern species.
B) Particular groups can be studied: eg modern horses evolved from Hyracotherium a small, leaf eating mammal with 4 toes.
C) Intermediate fossils connect different groups. eg Archaeopteryx links birds to reptiles. Drawing
2) Biogeography : particular species are only found in certain areas. Islands often have unique species:
eg Hawaii - over 300 unique species. Madagascar - lemurs are only found here. Florida - Key deer in Florida keys.
3) Comparative anatomy : all vertebrates ( reptiles, birds, mammals etc ) have the same arm bones. There are many similarities in their skeletons, muscles and organs.
4) Comparative embryology : vertebrate embryos are all similar, with gill slits and a tail.
5) Molecular biology : closely related species have similar DNA and proteins.
6) Vestigial organs : have no function but are inherited from an ancestor where they did have a function:
eg pelvic bones in snakes. Also the appendix, third eyelid, muscles to move ears in humans.
7) Atavisms : genes from ancestors that are usually switched off can be switched on.
eg horses with 3 toes. Or humans with dense hair all over the face "werewolf gene".
8) Imperfect "design" : an organism just needs to survive long enough to reproduce, it is not a perfect design.
eg legs longer than neck in a giraffe. The human skull is made of several bones joined together.The human eye has nerves infront of the retina.
9) New species have evolved recently: eg Spartina cordgrass in Europe. Primula kewensis in 1920s. HIV evolved in about 1940. Just in a few months in 2009, studies have shown evolution in bacteria, and demonstrated one species splitting into two new ones in butterflies, beetles and birds.
The oldest human fossils are roughly 6 to 7 million years ago. Fossil. More than 4 million years ago Ardipithecus in Africa had a mixture of "primitive" (more ape-like) and "derived" (human-like) characteristics. Later (roughly 4 million to 2 million years ago) the genus Australopithecus evolved. It was only found in Africa, slightly larger than a modern chimp, but walked on two legs.
The genus Homo evolved about 2 million years ago. Homo habilis : used stone tools, was about 5ft tall, had a small brain, only found in Africa. Homo habilis
Homo erectus : used tools and fire, roughly 6 ft tall, larger brain, spread from Africa to Asia and Europe. Homo erectus. Modern humans and Homo erectus may have come into contact in Asia. Louse study
Homo neanderthalensis : largest brain of any human, buried their dead. They were hunters, living mainly on large mammals. They cooked their food. DNA studies show that Neanderthals and Homo sapiens did not normally interbreed, even though they lived in the same areas. There is still debate about why the Neanderthals became extinct, but our species survived.
In 2004 skeletons of a new species of human were found on Flores, Indonesia. They were smaller than pygmies, but hunted large mammals and cooked their food. Homo floresiensis
Homo sapiens : spread worldwide, the only surviving human species. skull Modern humans all come from a small population who moved out of Africa less than 100,000 years ago: When humans faced extinction Early humans were "hunter-gatherers" - in other words they hunted animals and collected fruit, berries and shellfish. Humans did not start growing crops until about 10,000 years ago.
| Age of fossils (Years ago) |
Genus | Species | Location | Comments |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 4 million to 2 million | Australopithecus | afarensis | Africa | Small brain, no tools, bipedal |
| 2.5 million to 1.5 million | Homo | habilis | Africa | Larger brain, tools, 4.5ft tall |
| 2.3 million to 30,000 | Homo | erectus | Africa, Asia, Europe | Used fire, 6ft tall |
| 130,000 to 30,000 | Homo | neanderthalensis | Africa, Asia, Europe | Largest brain, buried their dead |
| 100,000 to 12,000 | Homo | floresiensis | Flores island, Indonesia | Height 3ft, hunted, used fire |
| 150,000 to Present | Homo | sapiens | Worldwide | Only human to reach America |
Note that from about 100,000 years ago to 30,000 years ago, there were four different species of human on the planet.
Last edited October 2014 by David Byres, David.Byres@fscj.edu